U.S. Supreme Court rulings related to Civil Rights:

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  1. Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
    • Details: Oliver Brown sued the Board of Education in Topeka, Kansas, after his daughter was denied entry to her local elementary school because of her race.
    • Significance: The Court unanimously declared that “separate but equal” public schools for blacks and whites were inherently unequal, thus overturning the previous precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson.
  2. Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964)
    • Details: A motel in Atlanta refused to accept Black Americans, arguing that Congress couldn’t use the Commerce Clause to force them to do so.
    • Significance: The Court ruled that the Commerce Clause allowed Congress to regulate local incidents of commerce, and that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was constitutional.
  3. Loving v. Virginia (1967)
    • Details: An interracial couple was arrested for violating Virginia’s law against interracial marriages.
    • Significance: The Court invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriages, holding that they violated the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment.
  4. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)
    • Details: Allan Bakke, a white man, was denied admission to a medical school with a special admissions program for minority students.
    • Significance: The Court held that while racial quotas were unconstitutional, race could be one of several factors in college admission policies.
  5. Batson v. Kentucky (1986)
    • Details: James Batson, a Black man, claimed that he was indicted because the prosecutor had removed all the Black jurors from the jury pool.
    • Significance: The Court ruled that such removal violated the Equal Protection Clause, setting a precedent against race-based exclusion of jurors.
  6. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)
    • Details: Same-sex couples sued their respective states for the right to marry or to have their marriages, performed in another state, recognized.
    • Significance: The Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees the right to marry as a fundamental liberty, and this right extends to same-sex couples.
  7. Shelby County v. Holder (2013)
    • Details: Shelby County, Alabama, sought a declaration that sections of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were unconstitutional.
    • Significance: The Court ruled that a provision of the Act, which required federal oversight of changes to voting procedure in certain states, was outdated and thus unconstitutional.
  8. Graham v. Florida (2010)
    • Details: Terrance Graham was sentenced as a juvenile to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for a non-homicide crime.
    • Significance: The Court ruled that life sentences without parole for juveniles who haven’t committed homicide are unconstitutional, citing the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause.
  9. R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul (1992)
    • Details: A teenager was charged under a city ordinance for burning a cross on a Black family’s lawn.
    • Significance: The Court held that the ordinance, which prohibited symbols that arouse anger, alarm or resentment in others on the basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender, was overly broad and violated the First Amendment.
  10. Lawrence v. Texas (2003)
  • Details: Two men were arrested in Texas for engaging in a consensual homosexual act.
  • Significance: The Court struck down sodomy laws in 14 states, ruling that private sexual conduct between consenting adults is protected by the Fourteenth Amendment.
  1. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
  • Details: Homer Plessy was arrested for sitting in a “whites-only” railroad car in Louisiana, challenging the state’s racial segregation laws.
  • Significance: The Court upheld the principle of “separate but equal,” effectively sanctioning state-sponsored racial segregation.
  1. Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
  • Details: Heman Sweatt, an African American, was denied admission to the University of Texas Law School based solely on race.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that separate professional schools for blacks failed to meet the “equal protection under the law” clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
  1. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
  • Details: Clarence Earl Gideon was charged with a felony and denied a defense lawyer because he couldn’t afford one.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that the Constitution requires states to provide defense attorneys to criminal defendants charged with serious offenses who cannot afford them.
  1. Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971)
  • Details: African American employees sued the company over high school diploma requirements and intelligence test scores that they claimed were discriminatory.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that, under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, practices, procedures, or tests neutral on their face, but with a discriminatory effect, are illegal unless closely related to job performance.
  1. Moore v. City of East Cleveland (1977)
  • Details: East Cleveland’s housing ordinance limited occupancy of a dwelling unit to members of a single family, which was narrowly defined.
  • Significance: The Court held that the ordinance was unconstitutional because it intruded on the right of extended families to live together.
  1. City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co. (1989)
  • Details: The City of Richmond, Virginia, had established a set-aside program for minority-owned businesses in the awarding of municipal contracts.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that the city’s program was not narrowly tailored to remedy past discrimination and thus was unconstitutional.
  1. Romer v. Evans (1996)
  • Details: Colorado voters adopted an amendment preventing any city, town, or county in the state from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to recognize gay and lesbian citizens as a protected class.
  • Significance: The Court held that the amendment was driven by animus against homosexuals and violated the equal protection clause.
  1. Boy Scouts of America v. Dale (2000)
  • Details: The Boy Scouts of America revoked James Dale’s adult membership when they found out he was gay.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that forcing the organization to accept Dale as a member violated their First Amendment rights of expressive association.
  1. United States v. Windsor (2013)
  • Details: Edith Windsor was forced to pay federal estate taxes after her same-sex spouse died because the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) defined marriage as only between a man and a woman.
  • Significance: The Court struck down that provision of DOMA, ruling it violated basic due process and equal protection principles.
  1. Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission (2018)
  • Details: A bakery refused to make a wedding cake for a same-sex couple, citing religious beliefs against same-sex marriage.
  • Significance: The Court held that the Colorado Civil Rights Commission showed animus against the baker’s religious beliefs, thus violating his rights under the First Amendment.
  1. Korematsu v. United States (1944)
  • Details: During World War II, Fred Korematsu refused to obey the wartime order to leave his home and report to a relocation camp for Japanese Americans.
  • Significance: The Court upheld the constitutionality of the internment of Japanese Americans, arguing that it was not borne of racial animosity but instead real military concerns. It’s widely seen today as a regrettable decision.
  1. Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
  • Details: Police entered Dolree Mapp’s home without a warrant, searching for a suspect, and found illegal materials.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment cannot be used in state criminal trials, establishing the “exclusionary rule.”
  1. New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964)
  • Details: L.B. Sullivan, an Alabama city official, sued The New York Times for publishing an ad that he believed defamed him.
  • Significance: The Court established the “actual malice” standard, which has to be met for press reports about public officials to be considered defamation.
  1. Virginia v. Loving (1967)
  • Details: An interracial couple, Richard and Mildred Loving, were charged with violating Virginia’s ban on interracial marriages.
  • Significance: The Court declared Virginia’s anti-miscegenation statute unconstitutional, ending all race-based legal restrictions on marriage in the U.S.
  1. Frontiero v. Richardson (1973)
  • Details: A female Air Force officer’s application for dependent’s benefits for her husband was denied, leading to the challenge of military regulations.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that benefits given by the U.S. military to the family of service members cannot be given out differently because of gender.
  1. United States v. Virginia (1996)
  • Details: The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) had a male-only admissions policy, which was challenged in court.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that VMI’s male-only policy was unconstitutional and that the state must provide a comparable public education to women.
  1. Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
  • Details: Barbara Grutter, a white resident of Michigan, applied for admission to the University of Michigan Law School but was denied.
  • Significance: The Court held that the U.S. Constitution permits race to be one of many factors considered by colleges when selecting their students because it furthers “a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body.”
  1. Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (2007)
  • Details: A school district’s use of racial classifications in high school admissions was challenged.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that while racial diversity is a compelling state interest that can justify the use of race in university admissions, it cannot justify racial classifications in public K-12 school admissions.
  1. Fisher v. University of Texas (2013)
  • Details: Abigail Fisher, a white student, sued the University of Texas at Austin for using race as one of many factors in admission.
  • Significance: The Court affirmed the right of universities to use race as one factor among many in admissions but emphasized that such programs must be closely reviewed to ensure there is no other way to achieve diversity.
  1. Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia (2020)
  • Details: Gerald Bostock was fired after joining a gay softball league, bringing into question if employment discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity is a violation of Title VII.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which forbids discrimination “because of … sex,” includes LGBTQ employees.
  1. Lynch v. Donnelly (1984)
  • Details: The city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, included a nativity scene in its Christmas display, which led to challenges based on the Establishment Clause.
  • Significance: The Court held that the inclusion of the nativity scene did not violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
  1. Batson v. Kentucky (1986)
  • Details: James Batson, an African American man, challenged his criminal conviction, asserting that the prosecutor used peremptory challenges to exclude black jurors.
  • Significance: The Court ruled that the discriminatory exclusion of jurors based on race violates a defendant’s right to an impartial jury.
  1. Lawrence v. Texas (2003)
  • Details: Two men were arrested in Texas for engaging in intimate relations, which violated the state’s sodomy law.
  • Significance: The Court invalidated state laws that criminalized intimate relations between consenting adults of the same sex, holding that they violate the Fourteenth Amendment’s due process clause.
  1. Shelby County v. Holder (2013)
  • Details: Shelby County, Alabama, challenged the constitutionality of sections of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
  • Significance: The Court declared a part of the Voting Rights Act, which determined which jurisdictions needed federal clearance for changes to voting procedures, as unconstitutional.
  1. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)
  • Details: Same-sex couples from multiple states sued their respective states for the right to marry or to have their lawful out-of-state marriages recognized.
  • Significance: The Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment requires states to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions and to license same-sex marriages.
  1. Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District (2017)
  • Details: A child with autism and his parents sued the school district for not providing an adequate education.
  • Significance: The Court clarified the level of education that public schools must provide to students with disabilities, stating it must be “reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances.”
  1. Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Comer (2017)
  • Details: A church’s preschool and daycare center was denied a state grant to resurface its playground because it was a religious institution.
  • Significance: The Court held that states cannot deny a church an otherwise available public benefit because of its religious status.
  1. Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission (2018)
  • Details: A baker refused to create a wedding cake for a same-sex couple based on religious objections.
  • Significance: The Court ruled in favor of the baker, holding that the Civil Rights Commission displayed impermissible hostility towards the baker’s religious beliefs.
  1. Bucklew v. Precythe (2019)
  • Details: Russell Bucklew, who was sentenced to death, argued that execution by lethal injection would be cruel and unusual punishment due to a medical condition he had.
  • Significance: The Court held that to succeed on an Eighth Amendment method-of-execution claim, a prisoner must show a feasible and readily implemented alternative method that would significantly reduce a substantial risk of severe pain.
  1. Department of Homeland Security v. Regents of the University of California (2020)
  • Details: The Trump administration sought to end the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program.
  • Significance: The Court held that the decision to rescind DACA was arbitrary and capricious under the Administrative Procedure Act.
    1. Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964)
    • Details: A motel in Atlanta refused to accept Black Americans as customers and challenged the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
    • Significance: The Court held that Congress was within its authority under the Commerce Clause to ban racial discrimination in public accommodations.
    1. Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966)
    • Details: The state of Virginia imposed a poll tax as a prerequisite for voting in state elections.
    • Significance: The Court held that state poll taxes were unconstitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment, as they effectively penalized citizens for their socioeconomic status.
    1. Craig v. Boren (1976)
    • Details: An Oklahoma law prohibited the sale of “nonintoxicating” beer to males under 21 and females under 18.
    • Significance: The Court held that gender-based differential established by the law was unconstitutional, introducing an intermediate scrutiny standard for gender-based classifications.
    1. United States v. Windsor (2013)
    • Details: The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages.
    • Significance: The Court ruled that DOMA was unconstitutional under the Fifth Amendment due to its violation of equal protection.
    1. Holt v. Hobbs (2015)
    • Details: An Arkansas policy prohibited a Muslim prisoner from growing a short beard in accordance with his religious beliefs.
    • Significance: The Court held that the Department of Corrections’ grooming policy violated the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act.
    1. Moore v. City of East Cleveland (1977)
    • Details: An East Cleveland zoning ordinance limited occupancy of a dwelling unit to members of a single family.
    • Significance: The Court ruled that the city’s housing ordinance was unconstitutional because it interfered with a family’s choice of living arrangements.
    1. R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul (1992)
    • Details: A juvenile burned a cross on the lawn of an African American family, violating a city ordinance.
    • Significance: The Court held that, although states can regulate certain forms of expression, they cannot discriminate against speech based on the ideas it expresses.
    1. Romer v. Evans (1996)
    • Details: Colorado’s Amendment 2 prohibited protected status based on homosexuality or bisexuality.
    • Significance: The Court ruled that the amendment was unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause, as it imposed a special disability upon those persons alone.
    1. Boy Scouts of America v. Dale (2000)
    • Details: After James Dale, an assistant scoutmaster, came out as gay, the Boy Scouts revoked his membership.
    • Significance: The Court held that the Boy Scouts had a First Amendment right to free association which allowed them to exclude Dale.
    1. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld (2004)
    • Details: Yaser Hamdi, a U.S. citizen, was declared an “enemy combatant” and detained without charge.
    • Significance: The Court ruled that U.S. citizens held as enemy combatants must have the ability to challenge their enemy combatant status before an impartial authority.

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